Preview: Arabian (Part 2) news

Due to moddb's limitation of 100,000 characters per news, this preview is split into two parts, find the other one here: Moddb.com

The Arabian Armies

1. On the armies of the Sabaeans and the other ancient Sayhad cultures.
Sources
There is not a lot of material to go on for reconstructing the look, equipment, evolution, organisation and tactics of the ancient south Arabian armies of the Hellenistic period. Hence one is often dependent upon sources from different periods, logic together with the bits of archaeology and epigraphic remains of this obscure little part of history to make a coherent representation, which is impossible without the use of some guesswork to fill in the various blanks. Quite a bit of our reconstruction is thus partly based on the more numerous sources from the first century BC onwards, which is less of a problem than it may seem as not that much appears to have changed during this time span.

The first type of source available to us, which perhaps provides the most information, especially equipment-wise, are warrior, victory and hunting steles and other reliefs. There are quite a few of them depicting nobles in their full panoply, usually a buckler, spear and/or sword and bow or a different combination of these. Sadly not all are conserved as well, and it is often hard to spot details. Few depictions of armour remain and are usually not too clear. Dating as well can be somewhat problematic. Of much importance is a victory stele depicting archers carrying the hands of slain enemies - as was also an ancient Egyptian habit – proving that the original idea that bows were unimportant and mostly the preserve of the élite in south Arabia was flawed. This idea was based on the research of a large collection of epigraphic texts from the first century AD by Beeston, one of the most important scholars of ancient south Arabian studies. It is in this important work that he also explains the organisation and equipment of the Sabaean armies according to his findings, of which most are still standing today. Though research in this field has been limited. Except for the friezes and epigraphic evidence little has been found in south Arabia. One ancient bronze sword with an Egyptian-like design has been found, but almost certainly dates back to the mukkarib period. The largest finds of Sayhad weaponry comes from the archaeological survey from Wadi Dura, led by J.F. Breton, but date from centuries after the game ends. Not uninteresting is the finding of a halberd, perhaps introduced or influenced by Indians, though of far too late a date for use in our mod. Some of the other finds such as bronze bowls with depictions of archers, a short to medium-sized sword and daggers are of more use to recreate our image of Sayhad warriors. All in all the best visual aid for reconstructing these soldiers are the aforementioned warrior stelae.

Organisation
From the sources that we have we can conclude one thing immediately: the Sabaean army was highly organised and was divided into different types of individual units. The most important division is probably between the professional or royal part of the Sabaean military and the ‘feudal’ part of the army. It is hard to tell when and how this division took place, in what way they differed and what their relative importance and roles were. What we do know is that this division was not unique to the Sabaeans and appears to have been present in the neighbouring nations as well. The actual nature of these royal or professional units, referred to as khamis, is debated. Without doubt these units did have a close relationship and were very loyal to the malik. The malik was most likely responsible for their armour and equipment as well. Within these units there may have been élite units referred to as the mqdmt, which acted either as scouts and/or a vanguard. Most of the royal army would probably originate from the large urban centres of the Sabaean shab, where many militias were recruited as well, in times of need sometimes even the richest and most influential citizens picked up their swords. The ‘feudal’ army were a collection of smaller armies under command of one of their local lords, a qayl, who on his turn was under command of the malik. These men were recruited from the rural communes and were mostly made up of two components: farmers and perhaps the unfree acting as light infantry or missile units, and the ‘warriors’. Most if not all armies from the Hellenistic period were cavalry-free as the horse was most probably only introduced by the first or second century AD. This lack of cavalry was probably one of their most prominent weak points and might be the reason why the spear and bow were such prevalent weapons in the Sabaean armies.

As rich nations often tend to do, the Sabaeans as well did not do all their fighting themselves. They are known to have recruited mercenaries on multiple occasions, most often from the Bedouin populations in the north. Though often named unreliable and poor warriors they were of great value in more arid regions. There was even a special unit of standing Bedouin mercenaries at Maryab, specially trained, and equipped by the malik: the tmhrt. Though the exact nature of this unit is of course hard to determine, Ethiopians, especially Habashites, also were often mentioned as mercenaries in service of South Arabian armies.
 

Equipment
Ancient south Arabian military equipment has left few traces and findings of its remains have been even fewer. Hence most of the Arabian unit concepts and sources for Ancient south Arabian weapons are based upon depictions from steles, graffiti and similar pictorial sources combined with the limited descriptions drawn from epigraphic texts. Most of these date from the first centuries AD. Of much use, however, are some of the findings from Wadi Dura, though most of it is of a later period.

The dominant weapon was the spear and almost every man had knife as well. As previously mentioned, the bow also played an important role both within levy units from the feudal armies as well as within the élite units of a Sabaean army which excelled in both mêlée and their role as missile units. Magnificent long swords were part of the panoply of the true élite as well. Depictions and findings from bronze swords from the 8th to 6th centuries BC show that they had access to high quality swords already at the earlier periods of Sabaean history. During and shortly after our timeframe we find depictions of long swords as well. In early Muslim times south Arabia, especially modern day Yemen, still was known for high quality long swords. For defence they were usually equipped with small round shields most likely made of wicker, as seem to have been common in most western parts of Arabia during these days. A late frieze of a soldier equipped with a hexagonal shaped shield has been found as well, though it is hard to say how prevalent they were and when they were first used. When it comes to armour we have little evidence as even pictorial sources are few and usually unclear, although there are friezes that depict what look like leather padded jackets. Helmet-wise we have more depictions though it is often hard to make out the details. Most of them were probably of simple conical designs. Though findings from Wadi Dura from the early centuries AD do depict rather fancy, decorated, plumed and uniquely shaped helmets as well. The use of javelins is sometimes referred to as rare, uncommon or as controversial in South Arabia. Clearly it was not the weapon of choice for the élite, though one can say the opposite of the Bedouins and possibly the communal levies as well. Graffiti at least shows that javelins were prevalent in most of the nomadic Arabian armies.

2. The Nabataean army and its evolution during the Hellenistic period

Sources
For the early period there are even fewer sources than in South Arabia. Hence we do not always have a clear view on every aspect of the North Arabian armies from the third century BC. From the accounts of the fighting between the Antigonids and the Nabataeans we know they were there and we get at least some basic information on their tactics. However the late army can easily be based of on the many friezes depicting warrior-gods, soldiers or military equipment.

Detail of a horseman armed with either a javelin or overhand spear

Most important are graffiti drawings from raiding nomads, which sadly are not all that clear and are hard to date. They usually depict simple stick-figured men, usually equipped with the in Arabia apparently very common buckler or sometimes a small square shield. Javelins and spears seem to be the common weapon together with short to medium-sized straight swords. It is clear that the armies were light and not equipped for heavy mêlée. We also see depictions of warriors on horseback usually armed with either javelin or lance. Since no or almost none Nabataean or other nomadic military equipment from this period has been found, we had to give them equipment that was alike to the graffiti depictions from neighbouring similar peoples from the area and time, by which they actually were influenced. We can for example clearly see composite bows as used by their neighbours from the north.

The accounts of Josephus and Strabo are from later times; the first tells us about the Jewish-Nabataean wars of the second and first centuries before the birth of Christ, the latter tells us of armies from the Red Sea Arabs from the late first century BC likely to be similar. The first tell us of a Nabataean-Judean clash, where the Nabataeans used mass camelry to drive the Judeans into a valley. The latter talks about ‘barbarians who were entirely inexperienced in war, and used their weapons unskilfully, which were bows, spears, swords, and slings; but the greater part of them wielded a double-edged axe.’ Such axes seem also to be prevalent in graffiti of Bedouin warriors to the south. Axes have also been found on friezes from the same period at Petra, though not double-edged. Strabo also mentions a tribe called the Debae, who fight and travel on camelback. During the Roman occupation the Nabataeans provided horse archers as auxiliaries, though the Arab horse archer tradition most probably dates back to the times of the Assyrians.

The early army and its tactics
Hence we come to a lightly armoured but swift-moving force which was used for raiding or fighting off raiders. The armies were perfectly adapted to the arid desert, which they employed to their utmost benefit against their enemy. Moving fast was so important many Arabian nomads moved whole forces on camel- and horseback. Both especially in combination provided their answer to heavier armoured forces. From the account of the fights against the Makedonians in 312 BC we also hear of them carrying out a surprise attack at night on the returning enemy to even their chances.

Their nomadic lifestyle was not only a great weapon against their enemies, but also an ideal defence. This roaming lifestyle meant that a foreigner could not occupy or conquer your lands and was seen as the only decent way of life. Settled life was decadent. The Nabataeans got their name from their adeptness at living and travelling in the wastelands. These ‘water diggers’ had a system of rainwater cisterns, which made them known for quickly travelling great distances. However if all failed or if it was bad for business, they relied on their riches, they earned by protecting merchants from raiders, to bribe enemies off, something their enemies often were counting on or hoping for.

The Evolution to a Hellenic army
During the second century BC the Nabataeans became increasingly settled and became more influenced by their non-Arab neighbours and population. The need for soldiers capable of fighting set-piece battles increased, Nabataeans serving in foreign armies (especially for the Hasmoneans) probably were one of the main sources of influence. The amount of horses available also increased. The thyreos, for example, started to be used more commonly.

In the first century BC the Nabataean kingdom reached its peak. While the incense land routes were losing importance in favour for the spice sea routes controlled by the Ptolemies with Alexandria as the main benefactor, agriculture had seriously increased. The Nabataeans evolved from the masters of the desert to masters of irrigation. They produced high quality ceramics and had now started carving their famously ornate rock tombs. In 86 BC they conquered and ruled Damascos for a few years. This drastically speeded up the already ongoing Hellenisation. Not only in art and in culture but also the equipment and organisation got thoroughly Hellenised. Even terminology and Greek got adopted. The existence of hetairoi units are for example attested in inscriptions from Petra. Of course with own accents and differences. So while carrying a thyreos or aspis and wearing thoraxes, some more typical Arabian weapons like the axe for example were still used. Many friezes from pre-Roman Petra show Hellenic equipment.

Organisation of the late Nabataean Army
We find many allusions to the organisation of the late Nabataean army in both the epigraphy and in the traditional historical sources, especially Jospehus. He claims that Aretas IV did not personally led his armies, but sent commanders instead. His opponent Herod Antipas did the exact same thing. The title of the commanders or generals was Strategos according to Josephus, a Greek term that was copied and transliterated by the Nabataeans and attested in many inscriptions all over the kingdom. Josephus suggests that this office was both civil and militarily, possibly however it could have been common for these high placed men to have combined it with other civil duties. The Hellenistic and Roman-influenced late armies of the Nabataeans were very well organised and there were several offices within the army. Nabataean officers found in epigraphy seem often to be related to each other. It has thus been suggested that offices were hereditary, but it could probably just be because of the monopoly on the offices of a small group of aristocratic Nabataean families, perhaps even the royal tribe. Officers, however, did have a career; we know, for example, of a certain Ganimu who was a camp commandant at Jauf and later became a Strategos at Hegra. Though indeed this does not necessarily mean that offices were not inherited as the heir could have held a lower rank first before succeeding their father.

Another high-ranked and Hellenistic-inspired office was that of the eparchos which was most probably of civil nature if it was similar to the same office in the Herodian kingdom. However the epigraphic mentions of this title, hprk’, are read as a Nabataean transliteration of hipparchos by other academics. The Aramaic named office of rb prsy’ which means cavalry commander has been found in Petra, which seems to suggest that there was indeed a strict separation of the infantry and cavalry in the late Nabataean armies, which supports the translation of hipparchos. Rb prsy’ most likely was the title of a lower ranked officer, but could as well be an earlier or alternative title. Lower in the hierarchy the older function of Chiliarchos has been attested, which could be compared to a Roman Tribune and could suggest subdivisions of the infantry forces. If we again compare this to the armies of Herod or the Hasmoneans such a possible division likely consisted of a thousand men. Though because of only a single mention and the possibility of this man copying the title of Alexander's companion Hephaistion who held the same office and name. Finally the last and lowest rank seems to have been the centurion, though his power seems to have been much greater compared to the Roman counterpart, as one was the highest authority in Leuke Kome, commanding the garrison and collecting customs due.

This goes to show that the Nabataean army had come a long way since their small nomadic raids of their early days. It also shows how much influence the Hellenistic armies of their neighbours, probably the Herodian army as well, had on the army of the Nabataeans. Which also supports the perhaps somewhat controversial Hellenisation of fighting tactics and equipment. Though if one looks at how rapidly the Hasmoneans organised and equipped an army to Hellenic and Roman standards combined with their own unique tradition, how much influence Hellenistic warfare had and how far it spread in many of the other non-Hellenistic countries of the regions, few controversial issues remain. Though of course due to the limited amount of literary, epigraphic, artistic and archaeological sources results in some educated guesses that cannot be avoided due to the nature of the game.

The units: renders and descriptions

The Sabaean units

qdb [citizen militia]: The citizens of Maryab and other urbanites formed the basis of the army of the Sabaean core shabs and were an important force for the whole commonwealth. They were united in their fate in Almuqah and in their loyalty to his human representative, the Malik, king of Saba. These men are not professional soldiers and are not the best-equipped, either. Their shields and spears are strong, yet nothing is stronger than their loyalty. This gives them better morale than most units of their type and they will try to hold the line even when against greater numbers or superior troops. However, having no armour and little experience they are far from battle-winning troops. Still they are far superior to the unreliable communal levies and untrustworthy Bedouin mercenaries.

Historically the Sabaean army consisted of multiple and vastly different elements. There was a major difference between the troops provided for by the Sabaeans themselves and those from the tribes. The former relied mostly upon urban levies [qdb] and militias. The tribes used provided troops as well [mnsh] these consisted mainly of light levies [‘bdt] and missile troops but also provided the ‘warriors’ [‘ss] led by the local lords or qayls [qyl]. The third part of the army consisted of a separate branch of professional soldiers [khms] loyal, paid and outfitted by the maliks themselves called the khamis. They lived on royal lands given by them by their malik in return for their services. The last part of the army consisted out of mercenaries, not unlike other rich states of the era. These were mostly Arab and Bedouin mercenaries [‘shb] who had a bad reputation, although Ethiopians [hzb] were commonly used as well.

These men belong to the first group and were called on regularly not merely when the need was greatest. There was also a group of nobles [hyr] who only at emergencies took up their arms [hll]. Some experience and their strong connection with both the king and the Sabaean shab made the ‘qdb’ an important addition to the army.

hzyn sb’ [Sabaean archers]: The bow is a cheap yet effective weapon useful for both hunting and war. These sweaty men do not have the money to buy expensive equipment. Most of them are farmers and hail from one of the many small villages that encompass our federation’s realm. Some of them might even be unfree. While the Sabaeans themselves had archers, most likely these men were called up by a local lord on request by the Sabaean malik [mlk sb’], the king of Saba. While they are capable with the bow, do not expect them to perform well in melee and are best left out of it. They may not look like much, but they are valuable when used well on the battlefield

Historically the Sabaean army consisted of multiple and vastly different elements. There was a major difference between the troops provided for by the Sabaeans themselves and those from the tribes. The former relied mostly upon urban levies [qdb] and militias. The tribes used provided troops as well [mnsh] these consisted mainly of light levies [‘bdt] and missile troops but also provided the ‘warriors’ [‘ss] led by the local lords or qayls [qyl]. The third part of the army consisted of a separate branch of professional soldiers [khms] loyal, paid and outfitted by the maliks themselves called the khamis. They lived on royal lands given by them by their malik in return for their services. The last part of the army consisted out of mercenaries, not unlike other rich states of the era. These were mostly Arab and Bedouin mercenaries [‘shb] who had a bad reputation, although Ethiopians [hzb] were commonly used as well.

While sir A. F. L. Beeston – who was the first to extensively research the warfare of the Sayhad cultures and hence Saba – did not believe the bow played a big part on the battle field, that view has changed dramatically. A victory stele displays archers returning from the battlefield with the chopped-of hands of their fallen enemies is one of the most convincing counter arguments. The bow was popular as a weapon with both the elite and the poor. It was an effective and light weapon and was not expensive to make. The use of the bow as a military weapon encompasses the complete Sabaean history, the famous inscriptions of Karib il Watar even directly mentioning the use of archers.

haghar hyr [noble townsfolk]: We, the Sabaeans, are known for being rich and these men can be considered as some of the richest of your realm. They hail mainly from the splendid city of Maryab and would rather avoid combat, yet are well trained and possess the best armour and weapons available: the finest and longest of swords for which we are famous, quality spears, composite bows and strong shields. They are truly an elite force to be reckoned with, able to hold the line even against the heavy infantry of the Hellenes. Though carrying the best equipment and being very well trained, they might not prove to be as hardened, loyal or eager as the Khamis or other professional full-time soldiers and are less experienced in battle. However only a fool or a madman would be happy to pick up his sword against these perfumed warriors, unless it is for the loot they leave behind.

Historically the Sabaean army consisted of multiple and vastly different elements. There was a major difference between the troops provided for by the Sabaeans themselves and those from the tribes. The former relied mostly upon urban levies [qdb] and militias. The tribes used provided troops as well [mnsh] these consisted mainly of light levies [‘bdt] and missile troops but also provided the ‘warriors’ [‘ss] led by the local lords or qayls [qyl]. The third part of the army consisted of a separate branch of professional soldiers [khms] loyal, paid and outfitted by the maliks themselves called the khamis. They lived on royal lands given by them by their malik in return for their services. The last part of the army consisted out of mercenaries, not unlike other rich states of the era. These were mostly Arab and Bedouin mercenaries [‘shb] who had a bad reputation, although Ethiopians [hzb] were commonly used as well.

These men represent the elite of the urban levies hailing mainly from Maryab. Rich merchants and nobles from the city occasionally formed an urban militia and went into battle, but tried to avoid it if possible. Naturally they carried expensive and high quality equipment but were not warlike. Hunting was one of their favourite pastimes and had a religious dimension to it, as it was done in honour of Athtar, who would thank them with abundant rain and a good harvest. This made them not just good fighters, but excellent archers as well. The combination of both capabilities made them an excellent and most useful part for any Sabaean army.

The Nabataean units

Muqrabê Lukhâta ["Warriors of the Spear”, North Arabian Spearmen]: These men are not levies per se, and are generally superior to Pantodapoi and such eastern spear levies, having lived a harsh live in the desert and experienced a raid or two in their time. However, they are not reliable warriors, and will fold in the face of almost any enemy heavy infantry unit. Relying merely on their speed and buckler to ward off enemy missiles, they are very vulnerable to arrows, but can put up resistance for a while to lighter horsemen. Their best use is as a mobile reserve, the final piece in a battle-plan, to move in to support the swordsmen and finish off an enemy tired and weakened by sling-bullet, arrow, and most importantly, the desert.
Historically the Northern Arabs rarely engaged in massive set-piece battles, but were more at home performing raids, defending against raids and performing ambushes. Their greatest weapon was the desert they lived in, hence settling down and building houses was deemed unwise. It was the desert they owed their freedom to. Therefore they did not rely on heavy units, but on swift units with little armour. Although short and medium sized swords and axes were used, the spear and bow were these soldiers’ weapon of choice. The spear was effective against mounted opponents, while the bow and other ranged weapons where ideal for their desert tactics.

Muqrabîn ["Warriors", North Arabian Shortswordsmen]: These are the veterans among the North Arabian tribes - men who have seen and lived through many a raid. Hardy men from the desert, they rush into battle with what they can afford - sword, helmet, and buckler - and cut down enemy skirmishers or spear-armed infantry. Relying on their speed and buckler to ward off enemy missiles, they are very vulnerable to arrows, and do not stand much of a chance against a cavalry charge, but can effectively deal with infantry of similar quality. They are no match for well-equipped and -trained Hellenistic troops, and should not be recklessly thrown at such enemies; rather, they are best used as a finishing touch, to deal with an enemy worn down by missiles of all sorts, as well as the desert heat, rather than a fresh and ready one.

Historically the Arabian sands were filled with both nomadic traders and raiders. Even under the dominance of the nomadic Nabataeans and later under their organised networks of caravan stations, forts, lookouts and small desert walls many Bedouin tribes roamed the deserts looking for plunder and spoils. These men are the result of these continuous raids. While most have never been part of large set-piece battles, they are hardened by both the desert and their way of life and all have swung their swords to fend off foes. The Nabataeans themselves were once notorious raiders but later the kingdom took protecting the traders seriously, as heavy taxes in exchange for protection was one of its main sources of wealth. Many of these warriors were therefore served as a sort of desert police force stationed at caravansaries along the trade routes.

Parashîn Qeshatîn [Nabataean Horse-Archers]: These horsemen come from the upper elements of tribal North Arabian society, a mix of retainers, merchants, and men who have taken a horse in a raid or battle. Being mounted greatly enhances their ability to carry out the typical Nabataean strategy – skirmish, harass, tire, and come in for a final blow. Being lightly armoured, these men are ill-suited to a melee fight except with other horsemen of their ilk, though they do have a quality sword and helmet for when they must come fight close quarters with the enemy, preferably from his flank or rear.

Historically, horses were relatively rare in the Arabian Peninsula during the early Hellenistic period. The Nabataeans and the Qedar were however known both for raiding and to field horsemen in greater numbers than their neighbours. Early and extensive contact with both Assyrian and Persian warfare must have significantly influenced them. However the camel was by far the most commonly used mount both for travelling and on the battlefield. By the first century BC the Nabataeans were becoming more and more famous for their mounts and their horse archers which they now fielded in much larger numbers and in a heavier form. In 67 AD 1,000 of them accompanied by 500 infantry men were send by Malchus II to strengthen the forces of Vespasianus. After the Roman conquest they became prized auxiliaries.

Concept art
To aid modelling and texturing units we had help from manhenhamanhenha or Fabio. He made concepts from the compiled historical data gathered by our historians, which he put to life. Though the concept art goes back to an earlier state of research they were most welcome to the modellers and skinners who thanks to Fabio had a much easier time of figuring out how everything looked. Below we will show two of his works next to a render of the final unit. One can note some subtle changes as further research provided better and more detailed images.

The qdb by manhenhamanhenha

haghar hyr by manhenhamanhenha

Bibliography
This list is only a select bibliography and features mostly generic works on one of the cultures involved.

• Warfare in Ancient South Arabia: 2nd - 3rd c. AD, A.F.L., Beeston.
• Ancient Yemen: some general trends of evolution of the Sabaic language and Sabaean culture,A., Korotayev, 1995.
• L'arabe heureuse au temps de la reine de Saba' VIIIe - Ier Siècle avant J-C, J.F., Breton.
• The pre-Islamic Antiquities at the Yemen National Museum, P.M., Costa, 1978.
• Queen of Sheba: treasures from Ancient Yemen, St John Simpson (ed), London, 2002.
• Sabaic Dictionary, A.F.L., Beeston & J., Rykmans, Louvain-la-Neuve, 1982.
• Geschichte der alt-südarabischen Reiche, K., Schippmann, Darmstadt, 1998.
• Die Geschichte von Saba’ II. : das Grossreich der Sabäer bis zu seinem Ende im Frühen 4. Jh. v. Chr., H., Von Wissmann, Wien, 1982.
• Documentation for ancient Arabia, K. A., Kitchen, 1994.
• Ancient South Arabian, 'The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages', N., Nebes and P., Stein.
• Corpus of South Arabian Inscriptions (
  Sig Banners:
  Sb' w-gwm
  
  
  
  

  Malkûtâ Nabâta
  
  
  
  

  
  We hope you have enjoyed this preview of the Arabian Peninsula in Europa Barbarorum II.

  Please note that unless stated otherwise, ALL pictures, names, and descriptions,… shown in our previews are works in progress. We continue to improve on all parts of EB, and we will continue to do so long after our initial release.

  Since some areas where these news items are posted cannot handle wide images, we appreciate your restraint from quoting full-size images.

  As always, if you have questions or comments, the best place to post them is here, where the EB team is most active:

  Europa Barbarorum ORG forum

  Europa Barbarorum TWC forum

  A special thanks to Huene, JMRC for their excellent models, Tux for the renders and sig banners, Tux and cmlax999 for the great Nabatean Horse Archer skin, Gustave for the wonderful unit skins, manhenhamanhenha for his fantastic concept art, Bobbin for artwork and the faction icon, Tux this time for his beautiful screenshots and to Tanit, Gamegeek2 and Moros for the historical info and text work. Also a big thanks to Paullus and The Persian Cathapract for general assistance and help with the map research, I Am Herenow for text editing. And of course a big thank to all the other EB members for their work on the project and the fans for their support and interest.

  We give an additional thanks to Image Shack and Flickr that provides us with a simple, fool proof, and free way to show you all these pictures each week.Screenshots